I've been review Reason and Bradbury for the philosophical foundations of Action Research. Traditional scientific research is based on rationalism (knowledge based on what we think or reason -- which uses logical argument to establish a line of thinking). This was used by Plato and Descartes. The next step in traditional scientific research was empiricism (knowledge is based on what we our senses tell us, what we experience outside of our thoughts). This was used by Aristotle and Newton and resulted in the scientific method of research. Post-modern philosophy called into question the "given" of rationalism and the objectivity of researchers in empiricism. As Gregory Bateson (1972) "argued that he . . . was deeply concerned with . . . the epistemological errors of our time and their consequences for justice and ecological sustainability. So the challenge of changing our worldview is central to our times" (as quoted in Reason & Bradbury, p. 4).

In the rejection of traditional science philosophers such as Michel Foucault proposed that knowledge was based on what society constructed because of the operation of power. As he stated, "There are, in the end, no foundations on which truth can be securely laid" (as quoted in Reason & Bradbury, p. 6). Brian Trainor, in his article on Post-modernism, truth and social work, criticised Foucault's theoretical philosophy, but "embrace the practical and methodical Foucault who recommends a full professional immersion into the real personal and social problems of everyday life" (Trainer, 2002, p. 212). Trainor thought is that action research needs to strive for the truth and best action in order to be effective.

Another school of philosophy that contributed to action research arose from liberation theology and liberation pedagogy. One of the best examples of this school of thought was Paulo Freire who proposed that education is power and education of the poor give them power. In his article, Education: Praxis de Liberte (1968) Freire outlined his thoughts on how education extends liberty to the students. In this action we can move them away from oppression and towards democracy. He paid a dear price for these ideas and had to escape to Harvard to survive.